Antarctica vs. the Arctic: Why Are the South and North Poles So Different?
At the northernmost and southernmost ends of the Earth lie vast worlds of ice.
These are the Arctic and the Antarctic.
On a map, the two regions appear quite similar. They lie at opposite ends of the Earth’s rotational axis, and both are characterized by extreme environments dominated by snow and ice.
Yet a closer look reveals that they are remarkably different.
At the heart of the Arctic lies an ocean, while at the heart of the Antarctic lies a continent.
This seemingly simple geographical difference has shaped not only their climates and ecosystems but also human settlement, politics, and issues surrounding natural resources in fundamentally different ways.
Interestingly, the locations and research activities of South Korea’s Dasan Arctic Research Station, King Sejong Station, and Jang Bogo Station are also closely connected to these geographical differences between the polar regions.
So, what exactly makes the Arctic and the Antarctic so different?
1. The Most Fundamental Difference — Continent or Ocean?
To understand the differences between Antarctica and the Arctic, we first need to look at what lies beneath the ice.
# Antarctica — A Continent Surrounded by Ocean
Antarctica is a vast continent.
It was once part of Gondwana, the ancient supercontinent, and became the distinct continent we know today through a long process of geological change (Australian Antarctic Program, 2020).
Over millions of years, snow accumulated and was gradually compressed into the enormous ice sheet that now covers the continent. About 99% of Antarctica is covered by snow and ice. Beneath the vast white surface visible in satellite images lies solid land with mountain ranges, valleys, and plains (Australian Antarctic Program, n.d.-a).
Antarctica is also the continent with the highest average elevation on Earth. Including its ice sheet, its average elevation is approximately 2,500 meters above sea level. This high elevation is one of the major factors contributing to the extremely cold conditions of Antarctica’s interior (Australian Antarctic Program, n.d.-a).
# The Arctic — An Ocean Surrounded by Continents
In contrast, there is no vast continent like Antarctica at the center of the Arctic.
Beneath the North Pole lies the Arctic Ocean.
The Arctic Ocean is largely enclosed by the landmasses of Eurasia, North America, and Greenland, and much of its surface is covered seasonally by sea ice (National Snow and Ice Data Center [NSIDC], n.d.).
Sea ice differs fundamentally from glaciers formed by the accumulation of snow on land. It forms when seawater freezes and floats on the ocean surface, constantly drifting and shifting under the influence of winds and ocean currents.
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Therefore, while Antarctica’s ice primarily consists of a massive continental ice sheet resting on land, the ice at the center of the Arctic is mainly sea ice floating on the Arctic Ocean (NSIDC, n.d.).
This difference involves much more than simply two different types of ice.
Antarctica is fundamentally a continent surrounded by ocean, whereas the Arctic is an ocean surrounded by continents. This basic geographical contrast is the starting point for understanding why the two polar regions have developed such different climates, ocean currents, and ecosystems.
In terms of their geographical structure, Antarctica is a vast landmass surrounded by the Southern Ocean. The Arctic, by contrast, is centered on an ocean that is largely enclosed by the continents of Eurasia and North America, as well as Greenland.
What lies at the center of each polar region is therefore fundamentally different. Beneath the Antarctic Ice Sheet lies solid continental land, including mountains, valleys, and plains. Beneath the sea ice around the North Pole, however, lies the Arctic Ocean rather than a continent.
The dominant types of ice are also different. Antarctica is characterized by an enormous continental ice sheet and glaciers formed through the accumulation and compression of snow on land. In the central Arctic, the most characteristic form of ice is sea ice, which forms when seawater freezes and floats on the ocean surface.
Their surrounding environments are almost the reverse of one another. Antarctica is a continent encircled by the Southern Ocean, while the Arctic Ocean is largely surrounded by Eurasia, North America, and Greenland.
Ultimately, the most fundamental difference can be expressed very simply:
Antarctica is an ice-covered continent, while the Arctic is an ice-covered ocean.
2. Why Is Antarctica Much Colder Than the Arctic?
Both Antarctica and the Arctic are extremely cold regions, but the interior of Antarctica is generally much colder than the Arctic.
In fact, Antarctica is the coldest continent on Earth, and in the high interior regions, the mean annual temperature can fall to around −60°C (Australian Antarctic Program, n.d.-c).
Why, then, is Antarctica so much colder even though both regions lie near the Earth’s poles?
Several important geographical factors help explain this difference, including the arrangement of continents and oceans, Antarctica’s high elevation, and patterns of oceanic and atmospheric circulation.
# First Reason — The Arctic Has a Vast Ocean
The most fundamental difference is that the Arctic is centered on an ocean, whereas Antarctica is centered on a vast continent.
Because oceans can store large amounts of heat and release it gradually, they help moderate extreme temperature changes in surrounding areas.
Although the Arctic Ocean is largely enclosed by continents, it receives seawater from both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. In particular, relatively warm Atlantic water flowing northward from the North Atlantic transports substantial amounts of oceanic heat into the Arctic (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration [NOAA], 2025).
Therefore, despite its polar location, the Arctic is influenced by the enormous heat-storage capacity of the ocean and by oceanic heat transported northward from lower latitudes.
Antarctica, by contrast, is a vast continent surrounded by ocean, and its interior is largely isolated from the ocean’s moderating influence.
# Second Reason — Antarctica Is a Very High Continent
The second reason is elevation.
Antarctica has the highest average elevation of any continent on Earth, reaching approximately 2,500 meters above sea level when the ice sheet is included. The South Pole itself lies at an elevation of about 2,830 meters, while the highest parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheet exceed 4,000 meters (Australian Antarctic Program, 2020).
In general, air temperature decreases as elevation increases.
This pattern is clearly visible in Antarctica. Temperatures drop significantly as one moves from the coast toward the high interior of the continent. The mean annual temperature in Antarctic coastal regions is around −10°C, while in the highest parts of the interior it can fall to approximately −60°C (Australian Antarctic Program, n.d.-c).
Therefore, Antarctica’s interior is not only located at an extremely high latitude but also lies at a very high elevation because of its massive ice sheet. Together, these conditions create an environment especially favorable for extremely low temperatures.
# Third Reason — Oceanic and Atmospheric Circulation Around Antarctica
The third reason is the distinctive pattern of oceanic and atmospheric circulation surrounding Antarctica.
Around the continent flows the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) from west to east.
The Antarctic Circumpolar Current is an enormous ocean current that flows completely around Antarctica, connecting the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans. The boundary where its cold waters meet relatively warmer waters to the north also contributes to the distinctive oceanic environment surrounding Antarctica (Australian Antarctic Program, n.d.-b).
This ocean circulation plays an important role in limiting heat exchange between Antarctica and lower-latitude oceans, helping to maintain the continent’s climatic isolation.
Combined with the strong westerly winds and atmospheric circulation surrounding Antarctica, this oceanic barrier contributes to a climate system that is largely isolated from the other continents.
The Arctic, by contrast, receives seawater and heat from both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and is surrounded by the landmasses of Eurasia and North America.
Ultimately, the arrangement of continents and oceans, Antarctica’s high elevation, and differences in oceanic and atmospheric circulation work together to make Antarctica much colder than the Arctic.
3. The Arctic of Polar Bears and the Antarctic of Penguins
The differences between the two polar regions are also clearly reflected in their ecosystems.
Perhaps the most familiar example is the contrast between polar bears and penguins.
In the wild, polar bears and penguins never encounter each other.
Polar bears live in the Arctic, whereas penguins are naturally found only in the Southern Hemisphere. Penguins are particularly abundant along the Antarctic coast and on many subantarctic islands, and several of the known penguin species live in Antarctica (Australian Antarctic Program, 2022).
# Why Are There Polar Bears in the Arctic?
Unlike Antarctica, the Arctic is not completely isolated from large continental landmasses.
The Arctic Ocean is surrounded by Eurasia, North America, and Greenland, and these landmasses, together with the sea ice of the Arctic Ocean, form a vast interconnected ecosystem.
As a result, the Arctic is home to a variety of terrestrial mammals, including not only polar bears but also Arctic foxes, reindeer, and musk oxen.
The polar bear, in particular, is an iconic predator whose life is closely tied to Arctic sea ice. Polar bears use sea ice as an essential habitat for traveling and hunting, and they depend heavily on it to hunt seals, their primary prey (U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, n.d.).
For this reason, although polar bears also spend time on land, ecologically they are closely connected to the Arctic marine and sea-ice ecosystem.
# Why Are There No Large Land Mammals in Antarctica?
Antarctica, by contrast, has long been isolated from other continents by the Southern Ocean.
Today, there are no naturally occurring terrestrial mammals, reptiles, or amphibians on the Antarctic continent. Animal life in its terrestrial ecosystems is extremely limited and consists largely of small invertebrates (British Antarctic Survey, n.d.).
Instead, Antarctica’s large-animal ecosystem is closely connected to the ocean.
The waters surrounding Antarctica support a wide variety of marine animals, including penguins, seals, and whales. One of the most important organisms linking these animals within the food web is Antarctic krill.
Krill are an important food source for fish, squid, penguins, many seabirds, some seals, and whales. As a result, Antarctic krill are among the key organisms supporting the food web of Antarctica and the Southern Ocean (Australian Antarctic Program, 2025).
In other words, the Arctic ecosystem includes both terrestrial mammals connected to the surrounding continents and marine animals, whereas Antarctica’s large-animal ecosystem is more closely dependent on the ocean.
# Does “Arctic” Really Mean “Bear”?
Interestingly, the idea of a “bear” can also be found in the names of the Arctic and Antarctic.
The word Arctic derives from the Greek word arktos, meaning “bear.” However, the “bear” in this name does not refer to the polar bear itself. Instead, it is associated with the constellations Ursa Major (the Great Bear) and Ursa Minor (the Little Bear) in the northern sky (Encyclopaedia Britannica, n.d.).
Therefore, it would not be accurate to assume that the Arctic was named because polar bears live there. The origin of the name is connected to the bear constellations visible in the northern sky.
The word Antarctic, by contrast, derives from the Greek antarktikos, essentially meaning “opposite the Arctic” or the region on the opposite side of the Earth from the north (Encyclopaedia Britannica, n.d.).
Interestingly, although these names originated from the “bear” in the northern sky, the actual biogeography of the polar regions presents a striking contrast of its own: polar bears live in the Arctic, while penguins inhabit the Antarctic.
4. Why Does South Korea Operate Three Polar Research Stations?
South Korea actively participates in polar research by operating scientific research stations in both the Arctic and Antarctica.
Its three major polar research bases are Dasan Arctic Research Station in the Arctic and King Sejong Station and Jang Bogo Station in Antarctica.
What is particularly interesting is that these three stations are not simply research bases located in different places.
Each offers distinct scientific advantages because it represents a different polar environment: the high-latitude Arctic, the marine and coastal environment around the Antarctic Peninsula, and the extreme continental environment of Antarctica.
① Dasan Arctic Research Station — Observing Changes in the Arctic
Dasan Arctic Research Station was established on April 29, 2002, in Ny-Ålesund on Spitsbergen, part of Norway’s Svalbard archipelago. It was South Korea’s first Arctic research station (Korea Polar Research Institute [KOPRI], n.d.-a).
Located at approximately 79°N, Ny-Ålesund is one of the world’s major centers for Arctic research, where scientists from numerous countries and research institutions conduct long-term research and environmental monitoring. International collaborative research covers a wide range of fields, including the atmosphere, glaciers, the marine environment of Kongsfjorden, and terrestrial ecosystems (Ny-Ålesund Research Station, n.d.).
Taking advantage of this unique environment, research conducted at Dasan Arctic Research Station includes studies of climate change through Arctic sea ice, changes in the atmosphere and upper atmosphere, monitoring of marine and terrestrial ecosystems, and research on biological resources adapted to extreme environments (KOPRI, n.d.-a).
Because the Arctic is particularly sensitive to climate change, long-term observations of changes in sea ice, the atmosphere, the ocean, and ecosystems are important not only for understanding the Arctic itself but also for understanding changes in the global climate system.
Dasan Arctic Research Station also differs from South Korea’s two Antarctic stations in the way it is operated.
While King Sejong Station and Jang Bogo Station are year-round research stations, where researchers and overwintering teams remain throughout the year, Dasan Arctic Research Station is a non-year-round station that operates primarily during the summer research season (KOPRI, n.d.-a).
② King Sejong Station — Observing the Environment of the Antarctic Peninsula
South Korea’s first Antarctic research station is King Sejong Station.
After joining the Antarctic Treaty in 1986, South Korea established King Sejong Station in February 1988 to begin full-scale scientific research in Antarctica (Korea Polar Research Institute [KOPRI], n.d.-b).
King Sejong Station is located on King George Island, part of the South Shetland Islands north of the Antarctic Peninsula in West Antarctica.
Therefore, the station is not located near the South Pole or deep within the Antarctic continental interior. Instead, it lies in a coastal setting closely connected to the marine environment surrounding the Antarctic Peninsula.
According to the Korea Polar Research Institute (KOPRI), research conducted at the station covers a wide range of fields, including climate change, oceanography, atmospheric science, the ozone layer, paleoclimate, and polar biological resources. Ecological monitoring of Antarctic seabirds is also carried out at the station (KOPRI, n.d.-b).
Because the Antarctic Peninsula and King George Island provide access to both terrestrial and marine environments, King Sejong Station has become an important base for long-term research into how Antarctica’s climate and ecosystems are responding to environmental change.
Over the years, research centered on King Sejong Station has accumulated across diverse fields, including marine and coastal environments, marine biology, geology and geophysics, atmospheric science, and ozone-layer research (KOPRI, n.d.-c).
③ Jang Bogo Station — Expanding Research onto the Antarctic Continent
South Korea’s second Antarctic research station, Jang Bogo Station, was established in 2014.
It is located on the coast of Terra Nova Bay in Northern Victoria Land, facing the Ross Sea in East Antarctica.
The most important difference from King Sejong Station is that Jang Bogo Station was built on the Antarctic mainland, making it South Korea’s first research station established on the Antarctic continent itself (KOPRI, n.d.-d).
With the establishment of Jang Bogo Station, South Korea gained a new base from which it could expand its research activities farther into the Antarctic continent.
The major research fields identified by the Korea Polar Research Institute (KOPRI) clearly reflect the geographical advantages of the station’s location.
Research conducted here includes continent-based studies in fields such as space science and astronomy, glaciology, and meteorite research, as well as studies of changes in the cryosphere and climate. The station also serves as a testbed for various interdisciplinary polar research projects (KOPRI, n.d.-d).
In particular, Jang Bogo Station provides an important base for research that requires direct access to the Antarctic continent, including studies of glaciers and the cryosphere, geology and geophysics, the upper atmosphere and space environment, and meteorites.
Ultimately, King Sejong Station and Jang Bogo Station do not replace one another.
King Sejong Station is well positioned for long-term observations of environmental and ecological changes around the Antarctic Peninsula and its surrounding marine and coastal environments. Jang Bogo Station, by contrast, has geographical advantages for studying the Antarctic continent itself, the cryosphere, the atmosphere and space environment, and for extending scientific activities farther into the Antarctic interior.
It is therefore more accurate to understand the two stations as having different research strengths shaped by their geographical settings rather than simply describing King Sejong Station as a “marine” station and Jang Bogo Station as a “continental” station.
Comparing South Korea’s Three Polar Research Stations
Dasan Arctic Research Station is located in Svalbard in the Arctic. Its location within an international Arctic research community provides valuable opportunities for collaborative research and long-term observations. Major areas of research include the atmosphere and climate, glaciers and the marine environment, and Arctic ecosystems.
King Sejong Station is located on King George Island near the Antarctic Peninsula. Its maritime setting provides access to both terrestrial and coastal environments. This makes the station particularly valuable for research on marine and coastal ecosystems, climate and atmospheric change, and geology.
Jang Bogo Station is located at Terra Nova Bay on the Antarctic mainland. Its continental setting provides an important base for research on glaciers and the cryosphere, geology and geophysics, the atmosphere and space environment, meteorites, and other fields that benefit from direct access to the Antarctic continent.
Together, the three stations provide South Korea with research bases in three distinct polar environments: the high Arctic, the maritime Antarctic, and the Antarctic continental environment.
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5. People Live in the Arctic, but Antarctica Has No Indigenous Population
From the perspective of human geography, the Arctic and Antarctica are also fundamentally different worlds.
The Arctic is not simply a natural environment of ice and ocean.
It is also a place where people have lived for thousands of years.
# The Arctic — A Polar Region Inhabited by People
Indigenous communities have lived across the Arctic for generations.
Among them are the Inuit and Sámi, as well as Indigenous peoples of northern Russia and Siberia such as the Nenets and Chukchi. Over long periods of time, these communities have adapted to Arctic environments and developed distinctive ways of life, livelihoods, and cultures.
Today, approximately four million people live in the Arctic, of whom an estimated 500,000 are Indigenous peoples. Within the Arctic Council, six organizations representing Arctic Indigenous peoples, including the Inuit and Sámi, participate as Permanent Participants (Arctic Council, n.d.-b).
The Inuit, for example, are widely distributed across Alaska, Canada, Greenland, and Chukotka in Russia. The Sámi traditionally inhabit regions extending across northern Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Russia (Arctic Council, n.d.-a, n.d.-c).
In this way, Indigenous societies in the Arctic are not confined within the borders of a single country. Their traditional homelands extend across the national boundaries that define today’s political map.
# The Arctic — Where the Territories and Waters of Multiple Countries Meet
Unlike Antarctica, the Arctic is not a region governed as a whole under a single international treaty system.
The Arctic Council includes eight Arctic states: Canada, the Kingdom of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the United States (Arctic Council, n.d.-d).
These countries have territories in the Arctic region, while the surrounding lands and waters are governed through a combination of national jurisdiction and international law.
As a result, the Arctic is a region where environmental protection and the lives of Indigenous peoples intersect with issues such as maritime jurisdiction, natural resource development, shipping routes, and economic activity, all of which involve the interests of multiple countries.
In particular, as climate change reduces Arctic sea ice, some Arctic waters are becoming more accessible and navigable for longer periods of the year.
According to data from the Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (PAME) working group of the Arctic Council, the number of ships entering the area covered by the Arctic Shipping Status Report increased from 1,298 in 2013 to 1,812 in 2025, an increase of approximately 40%. Over the same period, the total distance sailed by ships in the region increased by approximately 95% (Arctic Council, 2026).
The changes occurring in the Arctic therefore extend far beyond changes in the natural environment.
The process can be understood as a chain of interconnected changes:
Declining sea ice → changing access to Arctic waters → greater potential for shipping and resource development → shifts in economic, environmental, and geopolitical interests.
# Antarctica — A Continent Without an Indigenous Population
Antarctica, by contrast, has never historically had an Indigenous society comparable to the Inuit or Sámi of the Arctic.
Even today, there is no Indigenous population or permanent resident community that has lived in Antarctica as its ancestral homeland for generations (Australian Antarctic Program, 2021).
This does not mean, however, that Antarctica is completely uninhabited.
Today, research stations operated by many countries are scattered across the continent, where scientists, technicians, and station personnel live and work for limited periods of time.
The number of people in Antarctica also varies considerably by season. During the relatively mild Southern Hemisphere summer, several thousand people may be present across Antarctica, while the population decreases substantially during the harsh winter months (Australian Antarctic Program, 2021).
From the perspective of human geography, therefore, the contrast between the two polar regions is striking.
The Arctic is a region where human societies have developed over thousands of years and where the territories of multiple countries intersect with the traditional homelands of Indigenous peoples. Antarctica, by contrast, has no Indigenous society and remains a place where people stay primarily on a temporary basis for scientific research and research-station operations.
This difference also provides important background for understanding why the political and legal systems governing the Arctic and Antarctica developed in fundamentally different ways.
6. The Arctic — Where National Interests Intersect; Antarctica — Governed by Treaty
The Arctic and Antarctica also differ considerably in their political and legal structures.
# The Arctic — Where National Jurisdictions and International Law Meet
Unlike Antarctica, the Arctic is not governed as a whole under a single international treaty system.
Arctic lands and waters are governed through a combination of national law and international law. In the Arctic Ocean in particular, coastal states exercise sovereignty or sovereign rights over areas such as their territorial seas, exclusive economic zones (EEZs), and continental shelves in accordance with international law of the sea (United Nations, 1982).
The eight Arctic states participating in the Arctic Council are Canada, the Kingdom of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the United States (Arctic Council, n.d.-d).
Of these eight countries, however, only five have coastlines directly bordering the Arctic Ocean: Canada, the Kingdom of Denmark through Greenland, Norway, Russia, and the United States.
It would therefore be inaccurate to think that the entire Arctic Ocean belongs to a single country or is simply divided among the eight Arctic states. The extent and nature of each country’s jurisdiction vary across different maritime zones under international law of the sea, and some areas lie beyond national jurisdiction.
The Arctic Council is the principal forum for international cooperation in the Arctic.
Established in 1996, the Arctic Council is an intergovernmental forum in which the Arctic states and representatives of Arctic Indigenous peoples work together to promote cooperation and coordination on shared Arctic issues, including environmental protection and sustainable development (Arctic Council, n.d.-e).
In other words, the Arctic Council is not an “Arctic government” that governs the entire region or determines the territorial sovereignty of individual states.
In the Arctic, therefore, national sovereignty and jurisdiction, international law of the sea, Indigenous communities, and international cooperation all operate simultaneously.
# Antarctica — A Unique International Order Created by the Antarctic Treaty
Antarctica, by contrast, is governed by a highly distinctive international framework.
At the center of this system is the Antarctic Treaty.
The Antarctic Treaty was signed in Washington, D.C., on December 1, 1959, and entered into force on June 23, 1961.
The Treaty stipulates that Antarctica shall be used exclusively for peaceful purposes and prohibits activities of a military nature, including the establishment of military bases and fortifications, weapons testing, and military maneuvers. At the same time, it guarantees freedom of scientific investigation and promotes international cooperation through the exchange of scientific observations and research results (Antarctic Treaty, 1959).
Therefore, although many countries operate scientific research stations in Antarctica, their activities take place within an international framework centered on peaceful use, scientific research, and international cooperation under the Antarctic Treaty.
# Mineral Resources Cannot Be Freely Exploited in Antarctica
The framework for environmental protection in Antarctica was further strengthened in the following decades.
The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, adopted in 1991, designates Antarctica as a “natural reserve, devoted to peace and science.”
In particular, Article 7 of the Protocol prohibits activities relating to Antarctic mineral resources, except for scientific research (Antarctic Treaty Secretariat, 1991).
Therefore, even if oil, minerals, or other resources exist in Antarctica, ordinary commercial mineral resource development is not permitted under the current Antarctic Treaty System.
This is why Antarctica is commonly described as a region where mineral resource extraction is prohibited.
# So, Which Country Does Antarctica Belong To?
This raises an even more interesting question.
Before the Antarctic Treaty was signed, seven countries had already asserted territorial claims to parts of Antarctica: Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the United Kingdom.
However, Article IV of the Antarctic Treaty did not resolve these competing claims by either recognizing or rejecting the positions of the countries involved.
Instead, it established a framework under which no new territorial claims or enlargement of existing claims may be asserted while the Treaty remains in force (Antarctic Treaty, 1959).
It is therefore more accurate to say that the question of territorial sovereignty in Antarctica has not been completely “resolved.” Rather, the existing claims remain in place, while the issue of sovereignty is effectively frozen under the Antarctic Treaty System.
# Is Antarctica Really the “Common Heritage of Mankind”?
When Antarctica is discussed, the expression “Common Heritage of Mankind” is sometimes used.
It is an understandable description in the sense that Antarctica is not used like the ordinary territory of a particular country and is instead a place where international scientific cooperation and environmental protection play central roles.
From the perspective of international law, however, this expression requires some caution.
The Antarctic Treaty does not officially designate Antarctica as a whole as the “Common Heritage of Mankind.” Nor does it abolish the territorial claims that existed before the Treaty.
It is therefore more accurate to describe Antarctica not as legally established “common heritage of mankind,” but as a unique region internationally governed through the Antarctic Treaty System, with an emphasis on peaceful use, scientific research, and environmental protection.
Ultimately, the political geography of the Arctic and Antarctica is strikingly different.
In the Arctic, international law and international cooperation operate alongside the sovereignty and maritime jurisdiction of the surrounding states. In Antarctica, by contrast, the Antarctic Treaty System has effectively frozen the issue of territorial sovereignty while establishing a distinctive international order centered on peaceful use, scientific research, and environmental protection.
The two polar regions may look similar beneath their vast expanses of ice, but the ways in which humans divide, govern, and manage these spaces are fundamentally different.
Conclusion — What Lies Beneath the Ice Has Shaped Two Different Worlds
Both the Arctic and Antarctica are covered in ice.
Yet beneath that ice lie two fundamentally different worlds.
The Arctic is an ocean surrounded by continents, while Antarctica is a continent surrounded by ocean.
From this simple geographical difference, countless other differences have emerged.
Antarctica became the coldest region on Earth because of its high continental elevation, enormous ice sheet, and the oceanic circulation of the Southern Ocean.
The Arctic, by contrast, is influenced by both the vast Arctic Ocean and the surrounding continents, creating a distinctive polar marine environment.
Their ecosystems developed differently as well.
The Arctic is home to terrestrial mammals such as polar bears and reindeer, as well as human societies that have lived in the region for thousands of years. In isolated Antarctica, by contrast, large-animal ecosystems are closely tied to the ocean, with penguins, seals, and krill playing prominent roles.
Humans have also come to understand and govern the two polar regions in very different ways.
In the Arctic, national territories and maritime jurisdictions intersect with Indigenous communities, natural resources, and increasingly accessible shipping routes.
In Antarctica, scientific research and international cooperation have become central principles under the Antarctic Treaty System.
South Korea’s three polar research stations also reflect these geographical differences.
Dasan Arctic Research Station observes environmental changes in the Arctic. King Sejong Station provides a base for studying the marine and coastal environments around the Antarctic Peninsula, while Jang Bogo Station extends South Korea’s research into the Antarctic continent and its cryosphere.
Ultimately, the best starting point for understanding the differences between the Arctic and Antarctica is neither a complicated climate formula nor a political boundary.
What lies beneath the ice?
Beneath the ice of the Arctic lies an ocean.
Beneath the ice of Antarctica lies a continent.
And it is this fundamental difference that has helped create two distinct polar worlds — shaping their climates and ecosystems, as well as human history and international politics.
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