Why Did King Jeongjo Build Hwaseong Fortress? — The Geography Behind Joseon’s Planned City
When people think of Suwon Hwaseong Fortress, many remember it as a fortress built by King Jeongjo after relocating the tomb of his father, Crown Prince Sado, as an expression of filial devotion.
Certainly, the relocation of Crown Prince Sado’s tomb, Hyeollyungwon, to Suwon was an important starting point for the construction of Hwaseong.
However, it is difficult to explain King Jeongjo’s decision to invest enormous state resources and manpower in the construction of Hwaseong solely in terms of his devotion to his father.
The construction of Hwaseong was also part of Jeongjo’s broader vision to develop a new city, establish a strategic military stronghold south of the capital, promote commerce and agriculture, and create a new political and economic base that could strengthen royal authority (Kim, 2016).
In particular, examining the geographical location of Suwon makes it much easier to understand why King Jeongjo focused his attention on this area.
1. Why Suwon?
One of the greatest advantages of Suwon was its location as a strategic transportation hub.
To travel from Hanyang, the capital of Joseon, to the three southern provinces—Chungcheong, Jeolla, and Gyeongsang—travelers had to follow the major overland routes leading south from the Han River.
Suwon was situated along this important transportation corridor connecting Hanyang with the southern provinces of Korea.
Because Suwon was located along a major transportation corridor through which people and goods from the southern provinces traveled to Hanyang, it had highly favorable conditions for the growth of a new city.
For King Jeongjo, Suwon was not simply a city located near Hyeollyungwon.
It was a strategically important location where commerce and logistics could be developed by taking advantage of the transportation network connecting Hanyang with the three southern provinces (National Institute of Korean History, n.d.).
2. Building New Roads — The Transportation Network Connecting Hwaseong and Hyeollyungwon
The establishment of Hyeollyungwon and the construction of Hwaseong also brought major changes to the surrounding transportation network.
As King Jeongjo frequently traveled to Hyeollyungwon, the royal procession routes connecting Hanyang with Suwon and Hyeollyungwon were improved, while inconvenient sections of existing roads were replaced with newly constructed routes (Kim, 2002).
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A notable example was the new route to Suwon that passed through the areas of present-day Siheung and Anyang.
With the improvement of this so-called new road (sinro, 新路), the overland transportation network connecting Hanyang and Suwon became more efficient than before.
This did more than simply make the king’s royal processions more convenient.
Better roads also made it easier for people and goods to move.
Ultimately, the improvement of the road network leading to Hwaseong laid the foundation for Suwon to develop into an important overland transportation hub south of Hanyang.
3. Suwon’s Critical Weakness — Limited Access to Large-Scale Water Transportation
However, Suwon also had a significant geographical disadvantage.
During the Joseon period, when large quantities of goods had to be transported over long distances, water transportation (suwun, 水運) via rivers and the sea was generally far more efficient than overland transport.
Just as Hanyang developed along the Han River and Pyongyang along the Taedong River, while Jeonju benefited from the productive agricultural areas surrounding it, access to water transportation and a strong agricultural hinterland were important factors in the growth of major cities.
Hwaseong, however, had no large river like the Han or Taedong River that could accommodate large vessels.
The Suwoncheon Stream, which flowed through the fortress, was an important urban waterway, but it was not a major navigable route capable of carrying large merchant vessels transporting goods from across the country.
For Hwaseong to grow into a major city, therefore, this geographical weakness had to be overcome in other ways.
King Jeongjo sought to compensate for it by improving overland transportation, promoting commerce, and strengthening agricultural production in the surrounding areas.
4. Attracting Merchants and Building a New Commercial City
No matter how impressive a fortress might be, a city cannot grow without people living and working there.
King Jeongjo envisioned Hwaseong not simply as a military fortress, but as a new urban center where people could settle and goods could be traded.
To achieve this, he actively promoted commerce, including providing loans to merchants.
In particular, the government provided merchants with capital from public funds, encouraging new merchants to settle in Hwaseong and establish commercial activities there (Kim, 2008).
These policies were an attempt to establish a new economic foundation in Hwaseong that differed from the existing commercial system of Hanyang.
As more people gathered, markets emerged, and as those markets grew, they attracted even more people.
Through this virtuous cycle, King Jeongjo sought to develop Hwaseong into a city that combined not only administrative and military functions but also a thriving commercial economy.
5. Manseokgeo and Chukmanje — Securing Water Through Reservoir Construction
Hwaseong’s economic foundation was not based on commerce alone.
King Jeongjo also placed great emphasis on increasing agricultural productivity in the areas surrounding the city.
Large reservoirs such as Manseokgeo and Chukmanje were representative examples of these efforts.
By constructing reservoirs, water could be supplied to farmland more reliably even during periods of drought.
In addition, King Jeongjo established garrison farms (dunjeon, 屯田) and sought to increase agricultural productivity so that food and other essential supplies could be secured more reliably from the areas surrounding Hwaseong.
This was also important from a military perspective.
In times of war or emergency, a city that depended entirely on outside sources for its food supply would have difficulty sustaining itself for an extended period.
Strengthening the agricultural base around Hwaseong therefore helped stabilize the urban economy while also improving the city’s ability to sustain itself during military emergencies.
Commerce kept money circulating, agriculture secured food supplies, and roads enabled the movement of people and goods.
This combination was a key feature of King Jeongjo’s vision for Hwaseong (Academy of Korean Studies, 2023, 2024).
6. A Commercial City and a Military Stronghold
Hwaseong had another important purpose.
It was intended to serve as a strategic military stronghold south of Hanyang.
Suwon was located along one of the major overland transportation corridors leading from the three southern provinces toward Hanyang.
Being a transportation hub meant that Suwon was not only commercially advantageous but also strategically important from a military perspective.
Routes that facilitated the movement of people and goods in peacetime could also serve as important corridors for the movement of armies during wartime.
King Jeongjo therefore developed Hwaseong as a fortified city with strong defensive capabilities and linked it to the Jangyongyeong, the royal guard force that formed an important part of his military power base (Annals of King Jeongjo, 1793).
Hwaseong, therefore, was far more than an ordinary provincial fortress.
Economically, it was designed to develop into a new commercial city; militarily, it served as a strategic stronghold capable of defending the southern approaches to the capital while also supporting royal authority.
7. A Plains-and-Mountain Fortress Combining the Advantages of Mountain Fortresses and Walled Towns
Hwaseong’s distinctive character can also be seen in the design of its fortifications.
In Joseon’s traditional defensive system, people often lived in walled towns or settlements on the plains during peacetime and moved to nearby mountain fortresses for protection when a powerful enemy invaded.
Hwaseong, however, was designed differently.
It was constructed as a plains-and-mountain fortress (pyeongsanseong, 平山城) that enclosed both flat land and hilly terrain.
While taking advantage of natural features such as Paldalsan Mountain for defense, the fortress also enclosed enough level ground to accommodate residential areas, markets, government offices, and roads.
In other words, Hwaseong combined a living urban space with military fortifications within a single defensive system.
The fortress walls were also designed to make maximum use of the natural terrain.
On higher ground, the terrain itself provided a defensive advantage, while in flatter areas, stronger walls and additional defensive structures were built to compensate for the lack of natural protection.
Hwaseong also incorporated a variety of defensive facilities designed to respond to the changing nature of warfare, including the use of cannons and matchlock firearms.
Hwaseong systematically incorporated a wide range of defensive structures while making effective use of the natural terrain. It is regarded as an outstanding example of early modern military architecture that combined elements of Eastern and Western fortification techniques (UNESCO World Heritage Centre, 1997).
8. An Advanced Fortress Incorporating the Latest Technology of Its Time
The construction of Hwaseong drew on the research of leading intellectuals of the period, including Jeong Yak-yong, as well as innovative fortification techniques.
In particular, devices such as the geojunggi (擧重機, lifting crane) and nokro (轆轤, pulley system) were used to lift and transport heavy stones more efficiently (Jeongjo Myeongpyeon, 1801).
Hwaseong also featured not only large fortress gates such as Janganmun and Paldalmun, but also a systematically arranged network of defensive structures, including artillery pavilions (poru), hollow bastions (gongsimdon), bastions (chiseong), and secret gates (ammun).
As a result, Hwaseong was completed as a fortress that preserved the traditional characteristics of Joseon fortifications while actively incorporating the latest military and architectural technologies of its time.
9. Hwaseong — A Fortress Built with Both Stone and Brick
Another notable feature of Suwon Hwaseong is the combined use of stone and brick.
In China, brick-built fortifications developed extensively during the Ming and Qing dynasties. In Joseon, however, fortress construction traditionally relied primarily on stone masonry using locally available stone.
This difference reflected not only architectural traditions but also the relatively high cost of producing bricks. Brickmaking required suitable clay to be obtained and refined, molded into standardized shapes, dried, and then fired in kilns using large quantities of fuel.
Unlike stone, which could be quarried and shaped for construction, the mass production of bricks therefore required separate production facilities, substantial labor, and a considerable supply of fuel.
Compared with regions where brick architecture was highly developed, such as northern China, Liaodong, and Liaoxi, the Korean Peninsula was relatively disadvantaged in securing large quantities of high-quality clay suitable for brick production. Combined with the considerable fuel and labor required for firing, these conditions made brick a relatively expensive building material in Joseon.
These practical considerations were also reflected in the construction of Hwaseong.
Rather than building the entire fortress with costly bricks, dressed stone was used for the main fortress walls and lower sections, while brick was selectively employed in upper structures and specialized military facilities—such as gongsimdon (hollow bastions), bongdon (beacon towers), and poru (artillery pavilions)—where its particular advantages were most useful.
Because bricks were uniform in size and shape, they were well suited for constructing precise openings such as gun and cannon embrasures, as well as curved surfaces and other complex architectural forms.
Hwaseong, therefore, should not simply be understood as a fortress that made extensive use of brick, which was still a relatively uncommon building material in Joseon.
Rather, the more costly bricks were concentrated where their particular advantages were most useful and combined with stone, the traditional material widely used in Joseon fortress construction. In this way, Hwaseong sought to achieve both economic efficiency and military effectiveness.
10. Hwaseong Was the New City King Jeongjo Envisioned
Ultimately, describing Suwon Hwaseong simply as a “fortress of filial devotion” built by King Jeongjo for his father overlooks much of the broader significance of its construction.
The relocation of Hyeollyungwon, the tomb of Crown Prince Sado, was an important starting point for the development of Hwaseong, but Jeongjo’s vision extended far beyond it.
Suwon occupied a strategic position on the major overland transportation routes connecting Hanyang with the three southern provinces.
At the same time, however, it had the geographical disadvantage of lacking access to large-scale water transportation.
Jeongjo sought to overcome this weakness by improving the road network and actively promoting commerce. He also attempted to increase agricultural productivity around the city through projects such as the construction of Manseokgeo and Chukmanje reservoirs and the establishment of garrison farms (dunjeon).
At the center of this new urban system, he constructed Hwaseong with powerful defensive capabilities.
His plan was to use the overland transportation network to attract people and goods, promote commerce to stimulate the urban economy, strengthen the agricultural base to improve the city’s stability and self-sufficiency, and establish a strategically important military stronghold south of Hanyang through a combination of strong fortifications and military forces.
The political significance of Hwaseong should not be overlooked either.
Hwaseong also served as a new political and military base that could support Jeongjo’s efforts to strengthen royal authority and pursue his reform policies.
Suwon Hwaseong, therefore, was far more than simply a fortress.
It was a planned city designed to integrate politics, defense, commerce, transportation, and agriculture within a single urban space, and it embodied King Jeongjo’s broader vision for a new approach to governing the state.
It is impossible to know how Hwaseong might have developed had Jeongjo lived longer.
Yet the fortress walls and urban structure that survive today still reveal his ambition to transform Suwon from an ordinary provincial city into one of the new centers of Joseon.
References
Kim, Dong-wook. (2002). Suwon Hwaseong: The New City of Joseon Built on the Spirit of Silhak. Dolbegae.
Kim, Jun-hyuk. (2008). Yi San, King Jeongjo: Building Hwaseong, the City of His Dreams. Yeoyudang.
Kim, Jun-hyuk. (2016). Establishing Suwon’s identity and urban regeneration through the utilization of the World Heritage Site Suwon Hwaseong. Local History and Local Culture, 19(2), 39–70.
https://www.kci.go.kr/kciportal/landing/article.kci?arti_id=ART002167589
National Institute of Korean History. (n.d.). Hwaseong: King Jeongjo’s Construction of a New City. Our History Net. https://contents.history.go.kr/mobile/kc/view.do?code=kc_age_30&levelId=kc_r300890&
Jeongjo. (1801). Hwaseong Seongyeok Uigwe (華城城役儀軌) [Royal Protocols of the Construction of Hwaseong Fortress]. Kyujanggak Institute for Korean Studies, Seoul National University.
https://kyudb.snu.ac.kr/book/view.do?book_cd=GK14591_01&
Annals of the Joseon Dynasty. (1793, January 12). Renaming Suwon-bu as Hwaseong and elevating the magistrate to the position of yusu. Annals of King Jeongjo, Vol. 37. National Institute of Korean History. https://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kva_11701012_002?
Academy of Korean Studies. (2023, October 5). Manseokgeo. Encyclopedia of Korean Culture.
https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0017620?
Academy of Korean Studies. (2024, November 21). Chukmanje. Encyclopedia of Korean Culture.
https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0057923?
UNESCO World Heritage Centre. (1997). Hwaseong Fortress. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/817?
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