Baekje Culture in Ancient Korea: Exchange with China’s Southern Dynasties and the Aesthetic of “Splendid but Not Extravagant”
When comparing the cultures of Korea’s Three Kingdoms period, Goguryeo is often associated with grandeur, strength, and a vigorous spirit, while Silla is characterized by simplicity alongside the splendor of its celebrated gold culture.
What, then, distinguished the culture of Baekje?
Baekje culture is often admired for its elegance, sophistication, and restrained splendor—a refined beauty that was magnificent without being excessive.
How was Baekje able to develop a distinctive and sophisticated culture that set it apart from Goguryeo and Silla?
Several factors contributed to this development, but one of the most important was Baekje’s active cultural exchange with China’s Southern Dynasties.
Across the Yellow Sea, Baekje actively embraced the advanced culture and technologies of the Southern Dynasties. Rather than simply imitating what it received, however, Baekje reinterpreted these influences through its own aesthetic sensibilities and craftsmanship.
By examining archaeological artifacts and historical records, we can explore how Baekje developed its distinctive cultural elegance, refinement, and splendor.
1. The Aesthetic Ideal of Baekje — “Frugal but Not Shabby, Splendid but Not Extravagant” (儉而不陋 華而不侈)
One phrase frequently cited when discussing Baekje culture appears in the entry for the 15th year of King Onjo’s reign in the Baekje Annals of the Samguk Sagi (History of the Three Kingdoms).
“A new palace was built. It was frugal but not shabby, and splendid but not extravagant.”
儉而不陋 華而不侈
Geom-i-bullu, hwa-i-bulchi
“Frugal but not shabby, splendid but not extravagant.”
— (Samguk Sagi, Vol. 23, Baekje Annals, 15th Year of King Onjo’s Reign)
In other words, it describes an ideal of simplicity without crudeness and splendor without excessive luxury.
Of course, this passage is a later historical account describing a palace from the early period of Baekje. It would therefore be difficult to regard it as an official aesthetic principle that defined all of Baekje art and culture.
Nevertheless, the phrase provides a remarkably fitting way to describe the restrained yet sophisticated beauty that can still be seen in Baekje’s surviving artifacts and archaeological remains.
Rather than pursuing sheer scale and extravagance, Baekje culture was characterized by delicate ornamentation, harmonious balance, graceful lines, and restrained splendor.
One of the most important influences that stimulated the development of this distinctive culture was the sophisticated culture of China’s Southern Dynasties, which was flourishing in southern China at the time.
2. Why Did Baekje Actively Engage with China’s Southern Dynasties?
At the time, China was in the midst of the Wei, Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties period, an era in which numerous dynasties competed for power over several centuries.
In northern China, a succession of dynasties emerged, including the Northern Wei, Eastern Wei, Western Wei, Northern Qi, and Northern Zhou. In the Jiangnan region of southern China, the Eastern Jin was followed by the Southern Dynasties of Liu Song (宋), Southern Qi (齊), Liang (梁), and Chen (陳).
The Southern Dynasties, in particular, developed a sophisticated aristocratic culture supported by the economic prosperity of the Jiangnan region. Refined cultural traditions flourished in a wide range of fields, including literature, Buddhism, painting, architecture, and the decorative arts.
Baekje maintained diplomatic relations with these Southern Dynasties over a long period.
As early as the fourth century, during the reign of King Geunchogo, Baekje established diplomatic relations with the Eastern Jin (東晉). It continued to maintain exchanges with later Southern Dynasties, including Liu Song, Southern Qi, and Liang.
Relations with the Liang Dynasty (梁) became particularly active during the sixth century, under King Muryeong and King Seong (Reference: Records on Baekje in the Book of Song, Book of Southern Qi, and Book of Liang).
For Baekje, however, relations with the Southern Dynasties were not motivated solely by cultural interests.
Competing with Goguryeo and Silla on the Korean Peninsula, Baekje sought diplomatic ties with Chinese dynasties to enhance its international standing and secure political and diplomatic support.
At the same time, maritime routes across the Yellow Sea enabled Baekje to introduce advanced Chinese culture, technologies, and knowledge.
Ultimately, by actively participating in maritime networks linking the Korean Peninsula, the Jiangnan region of southern China, and the Japanese archipelago, Baekje developed within a highly interconnected and cosmopolitan cultural environment.
3. Archaeological Evidence of Southern Dynasties Influence
Archaeological remains provide clear evidence that exchanges between Baekje and China’s Southern Dynasties went far beyond diplomatic formalities.
One of the most representative examples is the Tomb of King Muryeong in Gongju.
① The Tomb of King Muryeong and Brick-Chamber Tombs
Discovered in 1971, the Tomb of King Muryeong is one of the most important archaeological discoveries in the study of Baekje history.
One of its most striking features is its construction. Unlike tombs built primarily of stone, the Tomb of King Muryeong is a brick-chamber tomb, constructed using specially made bricks.
Such brick-chamber tombs were closely related to burial styles that were widely used in the regions of China’s Southern Dynasties at the time.
Inside the Tomb of King Muryeong, bricks decorated with various motifs, including lotus patterns, were used extensively. The arched brick ceiling also displays architectural features closely associated with the burial traditions of China’s Southern Dynasties.
However, Baekje did not simply reproduce Chinese tombs. Instead, it adapted architectural techniques and funerary traditions introduced from China to suit Baekje’s own environment and cultural traditions.
The Tomb of King Muryeong is a representative example of how Baekje adopted cultural influences from China’s Southern Dynasties and reinterpreted them in its own distinctive style (Kwon, O-young, 2005; National Institute of Korean History, related materials).
② Epitaph Stones, Land-Purchase Documents, and Chinese Funerary Traditions
The Tomb of King Muryeong also yielded epitaph stones identifying the king and queen.
In particular, the land-purchase document (買地券), which takes the form of a document recording the purchase of land for the tomb from the deities of the land, provides important evidence of the influence of Chinese funerary traditions and Daoist beliefs prevalent at the time (National Institute of Korean History, “Daoist Thought Reflected in the Epitaph Stones of King Muryeong and His Queen”).
The tomb also contained a variety of artifacts reflecting Baekje’s international connections, including celadon believed to have been produced in China.
These artifacts demonstrate that the Baekje royal court maintained extensive networks of exchange with China’s Southern Dynasties and other regions of East Asia (Kwon, O-young, 2005).
In other words, the Baekje royal court was not an isolated political power confined to the Korean Peninsula. Rather, it actively participated in an international network of maritime exchange centered on the Yellow Sea.
4. Baekje’s International Status as Depicted in the Portraits of Periodical Offering of Liang (梁職貢圖)
Baekje’s relations with the Southern Dynasties are also documented in Chinese historical sources.
One of the most notable examples is the Portraits of Periodical Offering of Liang (Liang Zhigong Tu, 梁職貢圖), a work associated with the Liang Dynasty.
This work depicts envoys from various countries who visited the Liang Dynasty, along with descriptions of their respective states.
The Baekje envoy shown in the work is depicted wearing an official headpiece and a long, neatly arranged robe.
The accompanying account of Baekje also indicates that the kingdom maintained continuous diplomatic relations with China and possessed a highly developed political and cultural system (Records on the Baekje Envoy in the Portraits of Periodical Offering of Liang (梁職貢圖)).
The attire of the Baekje envoy is particularly noteworthy, as it provides valuable evidence of how Baekje’s ruling elite represented their kingdom’s status and culture on the international diplomatic stage.
Baekje was not merely a peripheral kingdom that passively absorbed the advanced culture of China.
Rather, through the continuous exchange of diplomatic envoys with the Southern Dynasties, Baekje actively participated in the broader international order of East Asia.
5. Baekje Did Not Simply Imitate Chinese Culture — The “Baekjeization” (百濟化) of Foreign Influences
The true distinctiveness of Baekje culture lies not simply in the fact that it adopted elements of Chinese culture.
More importantly, Baekje reinterpreted foreign cultural influences according to its own aesthetic sensibilities and traditions.
Baekje actively embraced Chinese influences in Buddhism, architecture, craftsmanship, funerary practices, and other areas, but it did not simply reproduce them.
By combining these foreign influences with Baekje’s characteristic graceful lines, sense of balance, and gentle forms of expression, the kingdom developed a distinctive artistic style of its own.
A representative example is the Rock-Carved Buddha Triad at Yonghyeon-ri in Seosan.
Its gentle expression, often referred to as the “Smile of Baekje,” symbolically represents one of the distinctive characteristics of Baekje Buddhist art.
Another representative masterpiece of Baekje culture is the Baekje Gilt-Bronze Incense Burner.
The Baekje Gilt-Bronze Incense Burner features extraordinarily intricate representations of mountains, clouds, immortals, animals, musicians, and many other elements.
Although it incorporates a complex combination of cultural influences, including Buddhist and Daoist worldviews introduced from China, its overall composition and artistic expression are remarkably original (National Museum of Korea, “Baekje Gilt-Bronze Incense Burner”).
In other words, Baekje did not simply consume cultural influences introduced from abroad. It selected, adapted, and creatively transformed them.
Through this process, the refined, graceful, and distinctive cultural style that we recognize today as uniquely Baekje gradually took shape.
6. Baekje as a Cultural Bridge in East Asia
Baekje’s international cultural exchanges did not end with China.
Many of the cultural traditions, knowledge, and technologies that Baekje adopted from China and further developed were transmitted across the sea to the Japanese archipelago.
Through its active exchanges with Japan, Baekje played an important role in transmitting a wide range of knowledge and technologies, including Buddhism, Confucian texts, written culture, architectural techniques, and roof-tile production (see records concerning Baekje in the Nihon Shoki; Roh Jung-kook, A History of Baekje Society and Thought, among others).
Baekje scholars, artisans, and skilled technicians traveled to Japan and played an active role there, exerting a significant influence on the development of the political institutions and culture of ancient Japan.
Baekje’s influence was particularly important during the Asuka period, when Buddhist culture began to flourish in Japan on a much larger scale.
Baekje, therefore, was not simply a passive recipient or consumer of Chinese culture.
China’s Southern Dynasties → Baekje → Japanese Archipelago
Within this broader network of cultural exchange across East Asia, Baekje served as an important cultural intermediary and hub, adopting foreign influences, reinterpreting them in its own distinctive way, and transmitting them onward to other regions.
7. From Hanseong to Ungjin and Sabi — Openness Forged by Crisis
Baekje’s history was far from peaceful.
In the fifth century, the southward expansion of King Jangsu of Goguryeo led to the fall of Hanseong, forcing Baekje to relocate its capital to Ungjin (present-day Gongju).
Baekje later relocated its capital once again, this time to Sabi (present-day Buyeo), where it reorganized and strengthened its political and administrative system.
At first glance, the later history of Baekje may appear to have been a period of crisis, as the kingdom faced mounting pressure from Goguryeo and Silla and was even forced to relocate its capital.
Yet even amid these challenges, Baekje did not abandon its connections with the outside world.
Instead, it strengthened diplomatic relations and maritime exchanges with China’s Southern Dynasties, actively embracing new cultural influences, knowledge, and technologies.
Baekje then combined these foreign influences with its own traditions, developing a distinctive culture of its own.
Baekje’s cultural achievements, therefore, did not emerge from isolation. They were made possible by the kingdom’s active engagement and interaction with the wider world.
Conclusion — Baekje’s Refined Culture Shaped by the Sea
The splendor and sophistication of Baekje culture cannot simply be explained as the luxury of its royal court and aristocracy.
Behind its cultural achievements lay an extensive international network of exchange that crossed the Yellow Sea to China’s Southern Dynasties and extended onward to the Japanese archipelago.
Baekje actively embraced the advanced culture of China, but it did not simply imitate it.
After adopting Buddhism and Daoism, architecture and craftsmanship, funerary traditions, and various technologies, Baekje adapted and reinterpreted them according to its own aesthetic sensibilities and traditions.
The distinctive culture that emerged from this process was then transmitted across the sea to the Japanese archipelago, where it played an important role in the broader development of East Asian culture.
Advanced Culture of China’s Southern Dynasties → Baekje’s Adoption and Creative Transformation → Transmission to the Japanese Archipelago
Seen in this broader context, Baekje was not merely an importer of foreign culture but an important hub of cultural exchange in ancient East Asia.
The phrase recorded in the Samguk Sagi, “Geom-i-bullu, hwa-i-bulchi” (儉而不陋 華而不侈)—“frugal but not shabby, splendid but not extravagant”—evokes the distinctive character of Baekje culture.
The exquisite bricks and ornaments from the Tomb of King Muryeong, the intricate artistry of the Baekje Gilt-Bronze Incense Burner, and the gentle smile of Baekje’s rock-carved Buddhist images still convey a remarkable sense of refinement and beauty today.
The beauty of Baekje was not simply about splendor.
It lay in an openness to foreign cultures, the creativity to transform them into something uniquely its own, and a refined sense of restraint that avoided excess even amid splendor.
Perhaps this is why Baekje culture continues to feel so distinctive and captivating even 1,500 years later.
References
Book of Liang (Liang Shu), “Account of Baekje.”
Book of Song (Song Shu), “Account of Baekje.”
Book of Southern Qi (Nan Qi Shu), “Account of Baekje.”
Kwon, O-young. (2005). The Tomb of King Muryeong: A Light on the History of Civilizational Exchange in Ancient East Asia. Dolbegae.
National Institute of Korean History. “Daoist Thought Reflected in the Epitaph Stones of King Muryeong and His Queen.”
National Museum of Korea and Buyeo National Museum. Materials related to the Baekje Gilt-Bronze Incense Burner.
Portraits of Periodical Offering of Liang (Liang Zhigong Tu, 梁職貢圖), records concerning Baekje.
Roh, Jung-kook. (2010). A History of Baekje Society and Thought. Jisik-Sanup Publications.
Samguk Sagi (History of the Three Kingdoms), Vol. 23, Baekje Annals.
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