Modern Korean History: The Imo Mutiny, Gapsin Coup, and Donghak Peasant Revolution

In the late 19th century, Joseon was swept into a maelstrom of profound change. As Western powers and Japan expanded their presence in East Asia, the traditional order began to unravel rapidly. Within Joseon, conflicts over modernization and reform intensified, while growing foreign influence pushed society into even greater turmoil.

At the center of these upheavals were the Imo Mutiny (1882), the Gapsin Coup (1884), and the Donghak Peasant Revolution (1894).

What is particularly interesting is that all three events began as domestic crises within Joseon but eventually developed into international issues as Qing China and Japan intervened. Each of these events also became an important turning point that would later reshape the fate of Joseon.

Let us take a closer look at these three major events that defined the final decades of the Joseon Dynasty.

1. The Imo Mutiny (1882): Soldiers’ Anger Fueled by Discrimination and Corruption

# Why Did the Soldiers Revolt?

Following the Treaty of Ganghwa in 1876, the Joseon government began introducing a modern military system.

One representative example was the establishment of the Byeolgigun (Special Skills Force), a modern military unit that adopted Western-style military training under the guidance of Japanese Second Lieutenant Horimoto Reizō (堀本禮造).

Because Horimoto, a Japanese military instructor, supervised the training, ordinary people and soldiers of the traditional army at the time sometimes referred to the Byeolgigun as “Waebyeolgi” (倭別技), a term emphasizing its association with Japan.

Byeolgigun (別技軍): Korea’s First Modern Military Force

The problem was that the government focused its attention almost exclusively on the newly established Byeolgigun.

Meanwhile, soldiers of the traditional army had gone unpaid for 13 months, and when they finally received their overdue rations, the rice was mixed with sand and rice bran.

The Byeolgigun consisted of only about 80 soldiers. Did maintaining a modern force of merely 80 men really leave the government without enough rice to pay the soldiers of the traditional army? In reality, the causes were far more complex.

(1) Widespread Corruption in State Finances and Military Supplies

The most immediate cause was the widespread corruption in government finances that had persisted since the era of Sedo Politics (rule by powerful in-law families), including abuses associated with the Three Administrations (Samjeong) and corruption in military supplies among senior officials.

Powerful royal in-laws, including Min Gyeom-ho, a cousin of Queen Min (later Empress Myeongseong) and the official responsible for the Seonhyecheong, which handled the soldiers’ payments, were accused of diverting rice intended for the troops for their own benefit.

The fact that the rice distributed after 13 months contained sand, rice bran, and spoiled rice was therefore not simply the result of a shortage of government funds. Rather, warehouse officials and government functionaries had siphoned off part of the rice and deliberately mixed in inferior materials to make up the missing weight.

(2) Overambitious Reform Policies and the Costs of Modernization

The government simultaneously pursued a wide range of modernization policies, including the establishment of the Byeolgigun, the creation of the Tongni Gimu Amun, the dispatch of diplomatic and fact-finding missions such as the Susinsa, Yeongseonsa, and Official Observation Mission (Josa Sichaldan), the purchase of modern weapons, and the construction of modern facilities.

However, the government attempted to carry out numerous modernization projects within a short period of time without adequate preparation. As a result, government expenditures increased rapidly, while tax revenues failed to keep pace, pushing the state budget deficit to an extreme level.

(3) Economic Disruption After the Treaty of Ganghwa

By this time, Japan had successfully modernized and possessed a far stronger economy than Joseon, giving its currency greater purchasing power as well.

Under the Treaty of Ganghwa and subsequent supplementary agreements, Joseon lost significant control over tariffs and restrictions on grain exports. Taking advantage of these conditions, Japanese merchants used their stronger currency to purchase large quantities of Korean rice without bearing substantial tariff costs.

As large amounts of rice flowed out of Joseon, domestic prices rose sharply. The Joseon government, which relied on relatively low-value yeopjeon (traditional Korean copper coins) and was already suffering from severe fiscal shortages, eventually struggled to secure even enough rice to properly pay the soldiers of the traditional army.

# Where Did the Soldiers Direct Their Anger?

The enraged soldiers attacked the residence of Min Gyeom-ho, the senior official in charge of the Seonhyecheong.

They then attacked and set fire to the Japanese Legation, while also attempting to eliminate Queen Min (later Empress Myeongseong) and other members of the powerful Min clan.

During this turmoil, Heungseon Daewongun returned to the forefront of Joseon politics.

However, his return to power did not last long.

The Min faction requested military assistance from Qing China, and Qing forces quickly entered Joseon and suppressed the uprising.

Heungseon Daewongun was forcibly taken to Tianjin by Qing forces.

# The Consequences of the Imo Mutiny — The Treaty of Jemulpo

Joseon signed the Treaty of Jemulpo with Japan.

Japan demanded compensation for the damage inflicted on its legation, and Joseon had little choice but to accept these demands.

Under the Treaty of Jemulpo, concluded in the aftermath of the Imo Mutiny, Joseon agreed to pay Japan a total of 550,000 won in compensation. Of this amount, 50,000 won was designated as compensation for the families of Japanese officials who had been killed and for the medical expenses of those who had been injured, while the remaining 500,000 won was intended to cover damage to the Japanese Legation and the military expenses incurred by the Japanese army and navy.

This was an enormous sum, exceeding one-third of the Joseon government's annual budget of approximately 1.5 million won. For this reason, the 500,000 won indemnity was to be paid in installments over a period of five years.

Japan also used the incident as an opportunity to secure the right to station Japanese troops in Hanseong (Seoul) under the pretext of protecting its legation, further expanding its military and political influence over Joseon.

# The Regulations for Maritime and Overland Trade Between Joseon and Qing China

Qing China used the Imo Mutiny as an opportunity to further strengthen its influence over Joseon.

Under the Regulations for Maritime and Overland Trade Between Joseon and Qing China, concluded in 1882, Chinese merchants secured the right to conduct commercial activities relatively freely not only in Joseon’s treaty ports but also in inland areas.

In particular, as the scope of commercial activities by Chinese merchants expanded significantly in Hanseong (Seoul) and other major cities, Qing China’s influence over Joseon’s distribution networks and commercial markets grew rapidly.

Qing China also used the agreement to treat Joseon not as a fully independent state, but rather as a tributary state subordinate to Qing authority. In practice, Chinese merchants conducted trade under more favorable conditions than Joseon merchants, and as a result, the Joseon economy gradually began to develop a growing dependence on Chinese capital and goods.

Ultimately, the Regulations for Maritime and Overland Trade Between Joseon and Qing China were more than a simple trade agreement. They represented a major unequal arrangement through which Qing China sought to expand its economic dominance over Joseon and reinforce its traditional suzerainty.

2. The Gapsin Coup (1884): A Modernizing Revolution That Collapsed in Three Days

# Why Did the Reformers Choose a Coup?

Conflicts over modernization policies were intensifying within the Joseon government.

The Moderate Enlightenment Faction sought to pursue gradual reforms while maintaining cooperation with Qing China.

In contrast, the Radical Enlightenment Faction, led by figures such as Kim Ok-gyun, Park Yeong-hyo, and Hong Yeong-sik, sought to build a modern state within a short period of time, using Japan’s Meiji Restoration as a model.

Meanwhile, the Sino-French War broke out between Qing China and France, prompting the withdrawal of some Qing troops from Joseon.

The Radical Enlightenment Faction regarded this as an ideal opportunity to seize power and carry out its reforms.

The Beginning of the Three-Day Coup

In December 1884, the coup began during a banquet celebrating the opening of the General Postal Administration (Ujeongchongguk).

The Radical Enlightenment Faction successfully seized power and established a new government.

They immediately announced a 14-point reform program.

Its major provisions included:

- Abolition of Joseon’s tributary relationship with Qing China

- Abolition of the hereditary status and privilege system

- Reform of the land tax system

- Centralization of state finances under the Ministry of Taxation (Hojo)

- Appointment of officials based on ability and merit

For its time, this was a highly ambitious and innovative reform program.

However, the situation changed dramatically when Qing forces quickly intervened.

The coup collapsed after only three days.

The leaders of the coup, including Kim Ok-gyun, fled to Japan.

Japan’s Betrayal and the Abandonment of Kim Ok-gyun

On the surface, Japan appeared to support Kim Ok-gyun and the Radical Enlightenment Faction. However, once the coup began, Qing troops advanced on Changdeokgung Palace much more quickly than expected. Faced with a major numerical disadvantage—approximately 150 Japanese troops against 1,500 Qing troops—the Japanese forces withdrew, abandoning the Korean reformers.

The more fundamental problem was that Japan had little interest in seeing Joseon become strong enough to develop into a truly independent and modern state. Japan increasingly viewed Joseon as a strategic foothold for its expansion onto the Asian continent and as a potential route for further imperial expansion. Its policies toward Joseon were therefore driven primarily by calculations of Japanese national interest.

This reality also became evident during Kim Ok-gyun’s years in exile. Japan did not actively protect him after he fled there and instead increasingly treated him with indifference. Eventually, Kim lost his political base and became isolated. Once his political usefulness had diminished, he was effectively cast aside—an example of the Korean expression “tosagupaeng” (兔死狗烹), meaning to discard someone once they are no longer useful.

Facing indifference from the Japanese government and with nowhere else to turn, Kim Ok-gyun boarded a ship for Shanghai, hoping to meet and negotiate with Li Hongzhang, one of the most powerful officials in Qing China.

However, the journey proved to be a carefully laid trap involving Hong Jong-u, an assassin sent by King Gojong.

In March 1894, Kim Ok-gyun was shot and killed at a hotel in Shanghai, bringing his turbulent life to a tragic end.

Ultimately, Kim Ok-gyun and the Radical Enlightenment Faction underestimated Japan’s imperial ambitions and relied too heavily on foreign military support. Japan, acting strictly according to its own national interests, abandoned the reformers as soon as they ceased to be useful.

# Atrocities Committed by Qing Troops

During the Imo Mutiny (1882) and the Gapsin Coup (1884), Qing troops dispatched to Joseon suffered from serious disciplinary problems. In the process of occupying the royal palace and suppressing the coup, they committed acts of violence, killing and looting that also victimized innocent Koreans.

Approximately 1,500 Qing troops, commanded by Yuan Shikai, advanced toward Changdeokgung Palace to drive out the reformers and Japanese forces. During the fighting, Korean palace guards were killed, while court ladies, eunuchs, and lower-ranking officials who had been unable to escape were also caught up in the violence and suffered casualties.

After the coup ended in failure and the Japanese troops withdrew, Qing soldiers spread through the streets of Hanseong. With military discipline breaking down, some troops engaged in widespread looting and violence.

Qing soldiers broke into Korean homes and shops, stealing property and attacking residents who resisted.

During attacks on Japanese merchants around the Japanese Legation, innocent Koreans were also reportedly targeted because they associated with Japanese residents or were mistaken for Japanese sympathizers or spies because of their appearance or clothing.

# The Consequences of the Gapsin Coup

(1) The Treaty of Hanseong

Japan demanded compensation for damage to the Japanese Legation and for Japanese casualties that occurred during the Gapsin Coup.

Ultimately, Joseon agreed to pay compensation to the Japanese victims and to finance the construction of a new Japanese Legation.

Joseon also allowed Japanese troops to be stationed in the capital under the pretext of protecting the legation.

(2) The Convention of Tianjin

In 1885, Qing China and Japan signed the Convention of Tianjin.

The key provisions of the agreement included:

- Both Qing China and Japan would withdraw their troops from Joseon.

- If either country decided to dispatch troops to Joseon in the future, it would notify the other country in advance.

On the surface, the agreement appeared to be intended to stabilize Joseon. In reality, however, it effectively established an arrangement in which Qing China and Japan would jointly regulate their military involvement in Joseon.

Joseon itself was not even allowed to participate in the negotiations.

The agreement later became an important part of the diplomatic background leading to the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895).

3. The Donghak Peasant Revolution (1894): A New World Envisioned by the Peasants

Why Did the Peasants Rise Up?

In the late 19th century, rural Joseon was engulfed in severe social and economic turmoil.

The exploitation of peasants by corrupt local officials grew increasingly severe, while abuses associated with the Three Administrations (Samjeong) devastated the lives of ordinary people.

In particular, Jo Byeong-gap, the magistrate of Gobu in Jeolla Province, imposed various forms of exploitation on local peasants, including the collection of unjust taxes associated with the construction of the Manseokbo Reservoir.

Enraged by these abuses, the peasants rose in revolt.

The government dispatched Yi Yong-tae as an anhaeksa (special investigator) to restore order. Instead, he branded the peasants as Donghak followers and subjected them to harsh repression.

As a result, rather than calming the situation, the government’s response further intensified popular anger, and the uprising eventually developed into a much broader movement.

# The First Uprising and the Jeonju Truce

The peasant army led by Jeon Bong-jun launched a large-scale uprising at Baeksan.

After winning successive victories at the Battle of Hwangtohyeon and the Battle of Hwangnyongchon, the peasant forces eventually captured Jeonju Fortress.

Alarmed by the rapidly expanding uprising, the Joseon government requested military assistance from Qing China, which subsequently dispatched troops to Joseon.

Concerned that foreign intervention would further worsen the crisis, the peasant army and the Joseon government chose to negotiate, resulting in the Jeonju Truce.

Afterward, the peasant forces established Jipgangso, local self-governing administrative bodies through which they administered regional affairs.

They also proposed the Twelve Articles of the Reform Program (Pyejeong Gaehyeokan), seeking broad social reforms, including changes to the status system and taxation.

The Second Uprising and the War Against Japanese Intervention

When Qing China dispatched troops to Joseon, Japan also sent its forces, citing the Convention of Tianjin as justification.

Japanese troops subsequently seized Gyeongbokgung Palace and helped establish a pro-Japanese government, further expanding Japan’s influence over Joseon.

In response, the peasant army rose up once again and launched a struggle aimed at driving Japanese forces out of Joseon.

At this stage, the Donghak Peasant Revolution developed beyond a domestic peasant uprising and increasingly took on the character of an anti-foreign and anti-Japanese resistance movement.

However, the peasant forces were unable to overcome the superior firepower and military organization of the Japanese forces at the Battle of Ugeumchi, and they were ultimately defeated.

# The Battle of Ugeumchi

In November 1894, the Donghak Peasant Army fought a decisive battle against Japanese and Joseon government forces at Ugeumchi, near Gongju in Chungcheong Province.

The Donghak Peasant Army is estimated to have numbered approximately 20,000 to 30,000 men, while the combined Japanese and Joseon government forces are generally estimated at around 3,000 to 5,000 troops.

Although the peasant army enjoyed a significant numerical advantage, the Japanese forces were equipped with modern firearms, including Murata rifles and machine guns.

In contrast, the peasant forces relied largely on bamboo spears, conventional spears, swords, and matchlock firearms, creating an overwhelming disparity in firepower.

Ultimately, the peasant army was unable to overcome the Japanese forces’ superior firepower and organized military tactics and was defeated at the Battle of Ugeumchi.

Following this battle, the Donghak Peasant Army rapidly disintegrated, and with the capture of Jeon Bong-jun, the Donghak Peasant Revolution effectively came to an end.

# The Consequences of the Donghak Peasant Revolution

Unlike the Imo Mutiny or the Gapsin Coup, the Donghak Peasant Revolution did not directly result in Joseon signing a new treaty with a particular foreign power.

Instead, the Joseon government and the peasant army concluded the Jeonju Truce, temporarily bringing their conflict to an end.

However, Qing troops dispatched at the request of the Joseon government and Japanese troops sent to Korea under the pretext of the Convention of Tianjin soon confronted each other on the Korean Peninsula. Their growing rivalry ultimately contributed directly to the outbreak of the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895).

In other words, the Donghak Peasant Revolution began as a peasant movement demanding domestic reform in Joseon, but it ultimately became an important catalyst that shook the international order of East Asia.

After its victory in the First Sino-Japanese War, Japan dramatically expanded its influence over Joseon. This marked the beginning of a chain of events that would eventually lead to the assassination of Empress Myeongseong (Eulmi Incident), the Russo-Japanese War, and ultimately the Japanese annexation of Korea.

# The Course of the Donghak Peasant Revolution (Chronological Order)

(1) On May 31, 1894, the Donghak Peasant Army captured Jeonju Fortress.

(2) Alarmed by the situation, the Joseon government had already requested military assistance from Qing China before the Jeonju Truce was concluded.

(3) In response to Joseon’s request, Qing China dispatched approximately 1,500–2,000 troops to the Asan Bay area.

(4) Japan then dispatched troops to Joseon under the terms of the Convention of Tianjin, signed in 1885. After notifying Qing China, Japan landed approximately 8,000 troops at Incheon.

(5) The Joseon government and the Donghak Peasant Army subsequently concluded the Jeonju Truce. The peasant army withdrew and established Jipgangso, local self-governing administrative bodies.

(6) However, neither the Qing nor Japanese forces withdrew from Joseon. Japanese troops eventually seized Gyeongbokgung Palace, and the escalating confrontation between Qing China and Japan led to the outbreak of the First Sino-Japanese War.

First Donghak Peasant Uprising → Joseon Government Requests Qing Military Assistance → Qing Troops Dispatched → Japanese Troops Dispatched → Jeonju Truce → Japanese Seizure of Gyeongbokgung Palace → Outbreak of the First Sino-Japanese War → Second Donghak Peasant Uprising

What the Three Events Had in Common

The three events were led by different groups.

The Imo Mutiny was led by soldiers of the traditional army, the Gapsin Coup was led by radical reformers, and the Donghak Peasant Revolution was driven primarily by peasants.

However, all three arose from attempts to confront the political, economic, and social problems deeply rooted in Joseon society, and all ultimately resulted in intervention by foreign powers.

In the process, the influence of Qing China and Japan steadily expanded, while Joseon’s ability to maintain its political autonomy weakened.

In particular, the First Sino-Japanese War, which broke out amid the Donghak Peasant Revolution and the resulting Qing-Japanese military intervention, became a major turning point that fundamentally transformed the international order of East Asia.

Ultimately, Joseon was unable to secure sufficient room to pursue independent reform. After passing through the period of the Korean Empire (Daehan Jeguk), Korea eventually faced the tragic outcome of Japanese colonial rule.

To understand the history of late 19th-century Joseon, the Imo Mutiny, Gapsin Coup, and Donghak Peasant Revolution should not be viewed merely as separate historical events. Rather, they need to be understood together as interconnected parts of a broader historical process.

These three upheavals were more than isolated incidents. They were crucial turning points that reveal the conflicts, struggles, and failures Joseon experienced in its attempt to transform itself into a modern state. For this reason, understanding late 19th-century Joseon requires examining all three events together.