Medieval Korean History: Uicheon and Jinul, the Two Great Masters of Goryeo Buddhism

Goryeo was one of the most prominent Buddhist states in Korean history, actively supporting Buddhism at the national level.

King Taejo Wang Geon regarded Buddhism as the spiritual foundation of the state, and the Goryeo royal family continued to support it by building temples and sponsoring various Buddhist ceremonies. As a result, Buddhism in Goryeo became far more than a religion; it exerted a profound influence on politics, culture, and philosophy.

However, as Buddhism flourished, conflicts emerged within the Buddhist community over different doctrines and methods of practice.

The most notable conflict was the rivalry between the Gyojong (Doctrinal School) and the Seonjong (Zen School).

The Gyojong emphasized the scholarly study of Buddhist scriptures and doctrine, whereas the Seonjong focused on meditation and personal practice as the path to enlightenment.

Two of the most influential figures who attempted to overcome this division and unify the Buddhist community in Goryeo were Uicheon (1055–1101) and Jinul (1158–1210).

Although both sought to reconcile the Gyojong and Seonjong traditions, they lived in different periods and adopted significantly different approaches to achieving religious integration.

1. Uicheon: The Reformer of Goryeo Buddhism Who Became a Monk Despite Being a Prince

Uicheon was born as a son of King Munjong, the 11th king of the Goryeo dynasty.

Despite his royal status, he entered the Buddhist order at an early age and eventually became one of the most influential Buddhist thinkers in Goryeo history.

At the time, the Buddhist community in Goryeo was divided, with the Gyojong and Seonjong traditions developing separately and competing with one another.

Rather than rejecting one tradition in favor of the other, Uicheon believed that the two should be harmonized and integrated.

However, his intellectual foundation was firmly rooted in the Gyojong tradition.

For this reason, Uicheon's Buddhist reform movement is often described as an effort to integrate Seonjong into a framework centered on Gyojong.

2. Gyogwan Gyeomsu: Combining Doctrinal Study and Buddhist Practice

The central concept that best represents Uicheon's philosophy is Gyogwan Gyeomsu (敎觀兼修).

In this concept, gyo (敎) refers to the scholarly study and understanding of Buddhist scriptures and doctrines, while gwan (觀) refers to the practice of directly realizing the truth through meditation and spiritual cultivation.

In other words, merely studying Buddhist teachings is not sufficient. Likewise, placing exclusive emphasis on meditation and practice is also inadequate. Uicheon argued that both doctrinal study and practical cultivation should be pursued together.

Through this approach, he sought to narrow the divide between the Gyojong tradition, which emphasized Buddhist scholarship, and the Seonjong tradition, which focused on meditation and spiritual practice.

For Uicheon, authentic Buddhist practice did not require choosing between knowledge and practice. Instead, it required harmonizing the two.

3. The Founding of the Korean Cheontae School and Gukcheongsa Temple

Uicheon sought to transform his vision of Buddhist integration into an organized religious movement.

The result was the establishment of the Korean Cheontae School (Haedong Cheontaejong, 海東天台宗).

Because the Cheontae tradition emphasized both doctrinal study and spiritual practice, it provided an ideal philosophical foundation for the form of Buddhist integration that Uicheon envisioned.

With the support of King Sukjong, the 15th ruler of the Goryeo dynasty, Uicheon established Gukcheongsa (國淸寺) in Gaegyeong and developed the Cheontae School around this temple.

Through the Cheontae School, Uicheon sought to preserve the doctrinal traditions of the existing Gyojong while embracing the meditative practices of the Seonjong.

Therefore, Uicheon's achievements were significant not simply because he founded a new Buddhist sect, but because he led a reform movement aimed at unifying the divided Buddhist community of Goryeo.

4. Uicheon and the Gyojang: Compiling Buddhist Knowledge

In addition to promoting the unification of the Buddhist community, Uicheon devoted considerable effort to organizing and disseminating Buddhist literature.

During his travels to the Song dynasty, he encountered a wide range of Buddhist texts. He also collected Buddhist literature from various regions, including Song China, the Liao dynasty (the Khitan Empire), and Japan.

In particular, he initiated a large-scale project to collect, organize, and publish numerous commentaries that explained and interpreted the Buddhist canon.

This collection is commonly known as the Gyojang (敎藏).

Uicheon also compiled the Sinpyeon Jejong Gyojang Chongnok (Newly Compiled Comprehensive Catalog of Buddhist Texts), a bibliographic catalog that systematically listed the Buddhist works he had collected.

These efforts were significant because they brought together and systematically organized Buddhist scholarship that had previously been scattered across East Asia.

Through these achievements, Uicheon left a profound legacy in the history of Goryeo Buddhism, not only by promoting philosophical integration but also by preserving and organizing Buddhist knowledge and literature.

5. Jinul: A Buddhist Reformer Who Emerged During the Military Regime

About a century after Uicheon, another influential Buddhist reformer, Jinul (1158–1210), emerged.

Jinul lived during the period of military rule, one of the most turbulent eras in Goryeo history.

Following the military coup of 1170, the political order was severely disrupted, and the Buddhist community also faced numerous challenges.

Some temples, which had grown wealthy through the support of the royal family and the aristocracy, accumulated vast amounts of land and economic resources. As a result, many monks became increasingly involved in political power and material interests.

Jinul believed that Buddhism needed to return to its original spirit of spiritual practice.

Unlike Uicheon, who pursued reform through the establishment of a new Buddhist school with royal support, Jinul advocated a different approach. His reform movement emphasized the creation of voluntary communities of monks dedicated to restoring the fundamental principles of Buddhism. In this sense, his movement was characterized more as a Buddhist reform association than as the founding of a new religious order.

6. The Suseonsa Movement: Returning to a Practice-Oriented Buddhism

Together with like-minded monks, Jinul actively pursued the reform of the Buddhist community.

The most representative example of this effort was the Suseonsa Movement (Suseonsa Gyeolsa, 修禪社結社).

Jinul criticized the prevailing tendency within the Buddhist community to pursue fame and material gain. Instead, he emphasized that monks should devote themselves to meditation and spiritual practice while faithfully following the original teachings of Buddhism.

This reform movement flourished around what is now Songgwangsa Temple in Suncheon.

Over time, Songgwangsa became one of the most important temples representing the Seon tradition of Goryeo Buddhism.

Jinul's Suseonsa Movement was far more than a simple gathering for spiritual practice. It was a Buddhist purification and reform movement that sought to correct the problems within the Buddhist community from within.

7. Dono Jeomsu: Spiritual Practice Continues Even After Enlightenment

One of Jinul's most influential theories of Buddhist practice was Dono Jeomsu (頓悟漸修).

The term dono (頓悟) refers to the sudden realization of one's true nature and the fundamental truth.

However, Jinul argued that attaining enlightenment did not mean that spiritual practice had come to an end.

He believed that even after enlightenment, deeply rooted habits and worldly attachments remained. Therefore, these obstacles had to be gradually eliminated through continuous practice.

This process is known as jeomsu (漸修), or gradual cultivation.

In simple terms, Dono Jeomsu can be summarized as follows:

"First, attain enlightenment. Then, continue practicing based on that enlightenment."

Jinul did not regard sudden enlightenment and long-term cultivation as opposing concepts. Instead, he viewed them as two interconnected stages within a single process of spiritual development.

8. Jeonghye Ssangsu: Cultivating Meditation and Wisdom Together

Another important principle of Jinul's philosophy of Buddhist practice was Jeonghye Ssangsu (定慧雙修).

The term jeong (定) refers to meditation and spiritual discipline that cultivate concentration and mental stability, while hye (慧) refers to the wisdom required to understand the truth correctly.

Jinul argued that practitioners should not pursue meditation alone or focus exclusively on intellectual understanding.

Instead, he emphasized that spiritual cultivation and wisdom should be developed together.

In this respect, Jinul shared an important similarity with Uicheon. Neither regarded theory or practice as sufficient on its own, and both sought to maintain a balance between the two.

However, there was also a significant difference between their approaches. While Uicheon attempted to incorporate the Seon tradition into a framework based on doctrinal Buddhism, Jinul placed Seon practice at the center of his philosophy while embracing the doctrinal strengths of the Gyojong tradition.

9. How Were Uicheon and Jinul Different?

Although both Uicheon and Jinul were reformers who sought to overcome the divisions and problems within Goryeo Buddhism, they proposed different paths for achieving that goal.

Both men attempted to present a new direction for Buddhism in Goryeo, but the methods they chose were fundamentally different.

Simply put, Uicheon approached reform from "doctrinal study to spiritual practice," whereas Jinul approached it from "spiritual practice to doctrinal study."

Although their starting points were different, they shared the same ultimate goal: overcoming the extreme division between the Gyojong and Seonjong traditions and harmonizing Buddhist theory with actual practice.

10. The Significance of Uicheon and Jinul in the History of Goryeo Buddhism

The activities of Uicheon and Jinul demonstrate that Goryeo Buddhism did not simply develop under royal patronage. Instead, it continuously pursued internal change and reform.

Supported by the royal family and the established Gyojong tradition, Uicheon founded the Cheontae School and sought to reconcile the Gyojong and Seonjong traditions. He also made significant contributions to Buddhist scholarship by collecting Buddhist texts from across East Asia and compiling the Gyojang.

In contrast, Jinul lived during the politically and socially turbulent period of military rule. He emphasized that Buddhism should free itself from worldly power and material interests and return to its original spirit of spiritual practice. Through the Suseonsa Movement, he transformed these ideals into an actual community of practitioners. In addition, his theories of Dono Jeomsu and Jeonghye Ssangsu established an important philosophical foundation for Goryeo Seon Buddhism.

Ultimately, although the two men lived in different periods and worked under different circumstances, they struggled with the same fundamental question:

"How can the understanding of Buddhist teachings be united with the actual practice of Buddhism?"

Uicheon attempted to answer this question through Gyogwan Gyeomsu and the Cheontae School, while Jinul presented his own solution through Dono Jeomsu, Jeonghye Ssangsu, and the Suseonsa Movement.

Although they began from different perspectives, both sought to reform and unify Goryeo Buddhism by harmonizing doctrinal study and spiritual practice. For this reason, Uicheon and Jinul are widely regarded as the two greatest figures in the history of Goryeo Buddhism.

However, an even more important question than Buddhist philosophy itself is how Buddhism contributed to Goryeo society in practical terms. Buddhism played a significant role in the economic development of the Goryeo dynasty.

11. How Did Goryeo Buddhism Contribute to Economic Development? — The Role of Temples in Transportation, Commerce, and Finance

# The Hidden Role of Won (院) in Goryeo Transportation and Commerce

The Goryeo dynasty, founded by King Taejo Wang Geon, who had risen to power through commercial activities, established an extensive network of land and water transportation centered on the capital, Gaegyeong.

In particular, Goryeo regarded its overland transportation system as a crucial foundation of state administration. Inns and relay stations were established along major roads, while roads and bridges were maintained to facilitate the movement of government officials, the delivery of official documents, and the transportation of taxes and goods.

Archaeological excavations of Goryeo-era roads have revealed evidence that some roads were carefully constructed using layers of gravel covered with compacted sandy soil. Remains of roadside trees and drainage systems have also been discovered.

These transportation networks played an essential role not only in government administration but also in facilitating the movement of people and goods between different regions.

(1) Yeok (驛): State-Operated Transportation Facilities for Government Officials

Maintaining a nationwide transportation network required intermediate stations where travelers could rest and replace their horses.

To meet this need, the Goryeo government established yeok (驛), or relay stations, along major transportation routes.

These relay stations served as state-operated transportation facilities that supported official travel, the delivery of government documents, the transmission of military information, and the transportation of state property and supplies.

Historical records indicate that there were approximately 525 relay stations throughout the Goryeo dynasty.

Yeok (驛): The State-Operated Transportation System Used by Goryeo Government Officials

However, relay stations were primarily designed for official government business. As a result, they differed significantly from private lodging facilities that could be freely used by ordinary travelers.

One of the institutions that supported civilian travel and transportation was the won (院).

(2) Won (院): Rest Stops for Travelers

A won was a facility established along major transportation routes, mountain passes, and ferry crossings to provide travelers with food, lodging, and a place to rest.

During the Goryeo dynasty, Buddhism exerted a tremendous influence on society, and Buddhist temples performed various social functions, including transportation, charity, and hospitality.

Temples throughout the country established won (院) between major roads and relay stations to accommodate the needs of civilian travelers. These facilities primarily served merchants and ordinary travelers by providing meals and lodging. Although they operated as accommodations for the general public, they were established with government approval and were typically managed by temples or Buddhist monks.

One of the most well-known examples was Hyeeumwon (惠蔭院) in the Paju region. Located along the main route connecting Gaegyeong and Namgyeong (present-day Seoul), Hyeeumwon was a large-scale facility that provided lodging and rest for travelers.

Hyeeumwon (惠蔭院): The Best-Equipped Won in the Goryeo Dynasty

In this sense, the won (院) of the Goryeo dynasty should be understood as more than simply a place to spend the night. It was an essential part of the transportation infrastructure that made long-distance travel possible.

(3) Why Won Were So Important in a Mountainous Landscape

Because the Korean Peninsula is largely mountainous, overland travel in the premodern period was far more difficult than it is today.

Travelers had to cross steep mountain passes and navigate rugged roads. During the winter, they also had to endure harsh temperatures and heavy snowfall. In sparsely populated areas, the threat of bandits and robbers was a constant concern. Depending on the time and region, wild animals such as tigers also posed a very real danger to travelers.

For this reason, facilities that provided food, lodging, and rest at regular intervals were essential for people traveling long distances.

At the time, the only institutions with both the financial resources and the nationwide organizational network necessary to establish and maintain lodging facilities in remote mountainous regions were the Buddhist community and its temples.

By establishing and managing won (院), Buddhist temples helped reduce many of the dangers and inconveniences associated with travel. These facilities played a crucial role in enabling monks, merchants, and ordinary travelers to move between regions more safely and efficiently.

Many won were designed to provide a secure environment for travelers. Protective walls helped guard against attacks by wild animals, while watchtowers were used to monitor and defend against bandits and thieves. Some won were also protected by monk soldiers (seungbyeong), who were responsible for maintaining security within and around these facilities and defending travelers from external threats.

At night, the gates of the won (院) were closed to protect travelers from wild animals and bandits, while monk soldiers stood guard to ensure their safety.

Thanks to the extensive network of won (院) established throughout the country by the Buddhist community, civilians in the Goryeo dynasty were able to travel long distances with a relatively high degree of convenience.

On average, these facilities were located approximately every 30 ri (about 12 kilometers). However, the distance between them varied according to the terrain. In relatively flat areas, the intervals between won tended to be longer, whereas in rugged mountainous regions, they were built closer together so that travelers could rest more frequently.

By the late Goryeo period, approximately 1,300 won were operating nationwide. Their regional distribution included 5 in Gaegyeong, 4 in Namgyeong, 17 in Gyeonggi Province, 212 in Chungcheong Province, 468 in Gyeongsang Province, 245 in Jeolla Province, 79 in Hwanghae Province, 63 in Gangwon Province, 37 in Hamgyeong Province, and 79 in Pyeongan Province.

Remarkably, a won known as Daeryeongwon (大嶺院) was even established at the summit of the rugged Daegwallyeong Pass, where it provided food, lodging, and a place to rest for travelers.

Daeryeongwon (大嶺院): The Traveler's Inn at the Summit of Daegwallyeong Pass

The won (院) served not only as places that provided food and lodging for travelers but also as institutions responsible for maintaining public security and assisting the poor.

Supported by the strong economic foundations of Buddhist temples during the Goryeo dynasty, many won offered rice porridge and food to impoverished people and those in need. They also carried out medical services and various charitable relief activities.

The charitable activities carried out by temples and won likely contributed to supporting the livelihoods of the poor and reducing social instability.

In particular, won established at important transportation hubs, especially in mountainous regions, provided travelers with safe places to rest and helped maintain both public security and the stability of transportation networks. As a result, these charitable and security functions may also have played an important role in preventing impoverished people from becoming migrants or turning to banditry because of economic hardship.

The won also served important military functions. Because they regularly stored supplies such as food and firewood, they could be used as logistical centers for distributing essential resources during wars, natural disasters, and other emergencies.

(4) Won and the Development of Regional Commerce

The development of transportation infrastructure naturally contributed to the growth of regional commerce.

When people could travel safely, merchants were also able to transport goods over longer distances. Agricultural products, handicrafts, and local specialties produced in different regions could be distributed along transportation routes, leading to an expansion of interregional trade.

In particular, economic activities such as lodging, food services, and the exchange of goods naturally developed around relay stations, won, ferry crossings, and other major transportation nodes where travelers frequently gathered.

Therefore, the won should be understood as more than a simple lodging facility. It was one of the key socioeconomic institutions that supported transportation and interregional exchange in the Goryeo dynasty.

(5) The Social and Economic Roles of the Buddhist Community

One of the distinctive characteristics of Buddhism during the Goryeo dynasty was that its influence extended far beyond religious practice.

Buddhist temples owned extensive lands and accumulated considerable wealth. They also participated in various economic activities, including agricultural production, handicrafts, and the distribution of goods. In addition, temples provided food and lodging for travelers, offered assistance to the poor, and carried out a wide range of charitable activities, effectively serving as important social welfare institutions.

From a modern perspective, these activities might appear to represent an excessive degree of secularization within a religious institution.

Indeed, during the late Goryeo period, the expansion of temple lands, economic privileges, and the close relationship between monks and political authorities became major social issues. These practices were strongly criticized by the emerging Neo-Confucian scholar-officials, who regarded them as serious problems within the Buddhist establishment.

However, it is equally important to recognize that temples performed a wide variety of functions in Goryeo society, including education, culture, charitable relief, lodging, and transportation.

In premodern societies, the roles now performed by governments, businesses, financial institutions, and social welfare organizations were not clearly separated. Therefore, it would be an oversimplification to conclude that a religious institution's participation in economic activities necessarily represented the corruption or decline of Buddhism.

(6) Temples and Financial Activities

Because Buddhist temples in the Goryeo dynasty possessed substantial economic resources, they also participated in financial activities, including lending grain and other forms of wealth in exchange for interest.

These lending activities could provide capital for commerce and production, thereby stimulating economic growth. However, when temples charged excessively high interest rates, borrowing could also become a significant burden for ordinary people.

Therefore, the financial activities of the Buddhist community in the Goryeo dynasty cannot be evaluated from only one perspective.

On the one hand, temples supplied capital and resources that encouraged economic activity. On the other hand, excessive interest rates and economic privileges could also create serious social problems.

(7) The Legacy of Won in Modern Place Names

Although won (院) gradually declined and eventually disappeared during the Joseon dynasty because of anti-Buddhist policies, their legacy can still be found in many modern place names.

Locations such as Itaewon, Hongjewon, and Bojewon in Seoul; Indeogwon, Toegyewon, and Janghowon in Gyeonggi Province; Jochiwon and Sillyewon in Chungcheong Province; Yangdeogwon in Gangwon Province; and Sariwon in Hwanghae Province all preserve the historical memory of the transportation and lodging facilities established during the Goryeo period.

(8) How Should We Understand the Secular Nature of Goryeo Buddhism?

Goryeo Buddhism possessed a distinctly secular character.

It received extensive support from the royal family and the aristocracy, exercised considerable political influence, and accumulated large amounts of land and property while participating in a wide range of economic activities.

At the same time, the Buddhist community operated temples and transportation facilities, supported travelers and the poor, and performed various public functions within society.

Therefore, rather than simply labeling the secularization of Goryeo Buddhism as evidence of moral decline, it may be more appropriate to understand it as a characteristic of a premodern society in which religious institutions simultaneously performed political, economic, cultural, and welfare-related functions.

From the perspective of modern economics, the Buddhist community of the Goryeo dynasty can be regarded as an important contributor to economic development. Despite numerous geographical and social constraints, Buddhist institutions supported transportation, trade, finance, and production, thereby facilitating economic growth.

(9) The Founding of Joseon and Changes in the Buddhist Community

By the late Goryeo period, Neo-Confucian scholars argued that the Buddhist establishment had accumulated excessive amounts of land and too many enslaved laborers, weakening the state's economic foundation.

After the founding of the Joseon dynasty, anti-Buddhist policies based on Neo-Confucian ideology were implemented. These policies reorganized temple lands and temple-owned laborers while also reducing the number of Buddhist sects and temples throughout the country.

As a result, the social status of the Buddhist community, which had exercised enormous influence over the political, economic, and social spheres during the Goryeo dynasty, declined significantly.

Consequently, the won (院), which had been closely associated with Buddhist temples, also began to deteriorate.

Initially, the government attempted to manage and maintain these facilities. However, it proved difficult to operate such an extensive nationwide network of won solely through state finances. In some regions, the responsibility for maintaining and supporting these facilities was eventually transferred to local residents.

Without sufficient financial resources and material support, many won became increasingly difficult to maintain. Some buildings fell into disrepair, while others lost their ability to provide lodging and meals.

Eventually, certain won were reduced to offering only basic services, such as water and firewood for travelers. By the middle of the Joseon period, a considerable number of these facilities had declined or disappeared altogether.

As lodging and rest facilities such as the won became less common, long-distance travel inevitably became more difficult for ordinary people. Travelers who could not find a place to stay sometimes had no choice but to spend the night in the mountains or open fields, exposing themselves to dangers such as harsh weather, wild animals, and bandits.

Long-distance travel also required considerable preparation. Travelers had to carry not only food and side dishes but also, when traveling on horseback, fodder for their animals. In addition, they needed to bring various tools and supplies necessary for cooking, lodging, and other daily needs.

As a result, both the financial cost and the physical burden of travel increased significantly.

In this way, the lack of transportation and lodging infrastructure became one of the factors that limited long-distance travel for ordinary people in Joseon society. Because of these constraints, many people spent their entire lives without traveling far beyond the region in which they were born.

As the won (院) system declined during the Joseon dynasty, civilian transportation and logistics infrastructure also weakened, restricting interregional exchange. As a result, local communities increasingly relied on producing and consuming their own goods, strengthening the self-sufficient nature of the regional economy.

Moreover, the decline of financial institutions that had once supplied capital for commerce and production placed significant constraints on the large-scale expansion of trade. As a result, economic development became increasingly limited.

The late Joseon scholar Bak Jega described the inefficiency of the Joseon transportation and distribution system as follows:

"In the Yeongdong region, honey is produced, but salt is unavailable. In Gwansŏn in Pyeongan Province, iron is produced, but citrus fruits are unavailable. In Hamgyeong Province, hemp is abundant, but cotton is scarce." 

- Bak Jega (1750–1805)

Conclusion: The Won of Goryeo Were Important Institutions That Connected Transportation and Society

The won (院) of the Goryeo dynasty were much more than simple inns.

They provided food, lodging, and places of rest for travelers crossing the Korean Peninsula's rugged mountainous terrain. By making long-distance travel possible, they facilitated the movement of people and goods and promoted interregional exchange.

In this process, the Buddhist community and Buddhist temples also played essential roles.

Buddhism in the Goryeo dynasty was not merely a religion devoted to spiritual practice and faith. It was deeply involved in various aspects of society, including politics, economics (such as commerce, industry, and job creation), culture, charitable relief, and transportation.

Therefore, defining all of the economic activities of the Goryeo Buddhist community as evidence of corruption or moral decline is an oversimplified interpretation that overlooks both the social structure of the period and the economic functions performed by religious institutions. From the perspective of modern economics, such an interpretation is also contradictory.

To understand Buddhism in the Goryeo dynasty more fully, it is necessary to examine the characteristics of a premodern society in which religious institutions were responsible not only for spiritual activities but also for economic, financial, welfare, cultural, and transportation-related functions.